大学写作第 3 课 - Citation Styles 与段落类型

Reading Guide / 阅读说明

第 2 课 已经建立了 coherence -> claim -> evidence -> warrant -> source integration。第 3 课先把 citation 落到 APA、MLA、Chicago 的外在形式，再回答更根本的问题：一个段落靠什么顺序把内容串成一条读者可以跟随的线？

一句话主线

A paragraph is not a pile of sentences: it is a sequence organized for a purpose, supported by traceable evidence, and completed by the writer’s interpretation.

段落不是句子的堆积，而是围绕一个目的安排的顺序；来源必须可追溯，证据之后还必须出现作者自己的解读。

1. Lecture Map / 本课脉络

academic integrity recap
-> identify the required citation system
-> connect each in-text marker or note to a complete source entry
-> manage sources with Zotero, but verify the output
-> choose a paragraph's organizing principle
-> narrate by time / describe by space / explain data by pattern
-> describe a process / define a term / exemplify a claim
-> complete claim-evidence-warrant with interpretation

本课前半段看似在讲格式，后半段看似在列 paragraph types，二者其实由同一个 reader-centered 原则连接：读者既要知道信息来自哪里，也要知道为什么下一句会出现在这里。

2. Citation Is a Retrieval System / 引用不是装饰

Academic Citation 的核心不是括号长什么样，而是建立一条可以追踪的路径：

source-dependent claim
-> nearby in-text citation or note
-> matching References / Works Cited / Bibliography entry
-> original source

quotation、paraphrase、summary、specific data 和他人的 distinctive interpretation 都可能需要 citation。改写措辞并不会把来源观点变成自己的观点，这与 Acceptable Paraphrase 和 Source Integration 直接相连。

3. APA, MLA, and Chicago / 三种系统看什么

Citation Styles 最值得记忆的不是完整标点模板，而是每套系统优先给读者什么定位信息。

System	Typical in-text signal	End list	Reader sees first	Common classroom association
APA	author + year; page for direct quotations and when useful for locating a passage	References	who + when	sciences and many social sciences
MLA	author/title key + page or other location when available	Works Cited	who/which work + where	literature and humanities
Chicago Notes and Bibliography	superscript note number -> footnote/endnote	Bibliography	full or shortened source note	history and some humanities

这些 discipline associations 只是常见倾向，不是选择规则。The assignment sheet, instructor, journal, or required handbook determines the style. Chicago 也不只有 notes-bibliography，还存在 author-date system。

APA: author-date logic

• 若作者已进入 prose，括号通常不必重复作者；
• date 让读者快速判断研究的新旧；
• direct quotation 通常需要 location information；
• 文末标题是 References，每条与正文 citation 对应。

MLA: author-location logic

• citation 用能指向 Works Cited entry 的最短有效信息；
• 对有稳定页码的材料，具体 quotation 或 paraphrase 通常给 page number；
• 作者已在句中出现时，括号往往只保留 location；
• 文末标题是 Works Cited。

Chicago: notes as a parallel reading path

• superscript note number 把正文连接到 footnote 或 endnote；
• first note may be full，later references commonly use shortened notes；
• bibliography 提供系统化的 source list；
• 当前 Chicago 指引倾向 shortened citation，而不是把 ibid. 当默认做法。

Format Boundary / 格式边界

课堂示例帮助辨认三套系统，但不能替代指定版本的 handbook。APA 7 的 book reference 不再要求 publisher location；journal article title 不使用 italics，而 journal title 与 volume 才使用 italics。课堂中的相反说法不要照抄。Chicago 的 note、page locator、author count 与重复引用也应按课程指定版本核对。

核对入口：APA Style reference examples、MLA in-text citation overview、Chicago notes and bibliography guide。

4. Citation Scope / 一个括号到底覆盖到哪里

课堂用“汉堡原则”说明：连续几句都来自同一作者时，在段落前后放 citation，让读者知道这一组句子的来源。这个比完全不标来源好，但不能机械化为“每三句放两次 citation”。

更可靠的问题是：

1. reader 能否准确判断哪一句开始依赖该 source？
2. 中间是否插入了 writer’s own analysis 或另一来源？
3. 一个 citation 是否可能被误读为只支持最后一句？
4. quotation 或精确数据是否给了所需 locator？

Citation placement should make the scope of borrowed material unmistakable.

引用位置的标准不是数量，而是来源边界是否清楚。

多作者写法、et al.、并列多个研究以及标点顺序会因 style、source type 与 reference-list/in-text location 而变化。不要从一种 style 的单个例子推广成通则。

5. Zotero and Hanging Indents / 工具负责重复劳动，人负责核验

课堂演示的工具是 Zotero：browser connector 可抓取网页或数据库记录，word processor plugin 可插入 citation 和 bibliography，也可切换 style。

一个可靠流程：

1. save the source and inspect imported metadata；
2. correct author names, title capitalization, date, container, DOI/URL；
3. select the exact required style and edition；
4. insert citation through the plugin；
5. inspect the final in-text form and bibliography entry；
6. confirm every cited work appears in the end list and every listed work is actually cited when required。

References、Works Cited 与 Bibliography 常使用 hanging indent：第一行靠左，后续行缩进。它帮助读者快速扫描作者或条目开头，但排版正确不等于 metadata 正确。

A citation manager automates formatting; it does not verify scholarship.

6. The String and the Beads / 串珠子的线

课堂把句子、细节和观点比作 beads，把组织顺序比作 string。Paragraph Development 的关键不是背段落名称，而是先决定：这个段落要完成什么任务，哪一种顺序最适合这个任务？

Paragraph move	Organizing line	Reader’s question
narrative	time	What happened next?
descriptive	space or selected feature	What does it look/feel like as attention moves?
data commentary	comparison, trend, exception, significance	What pattern matters, and what does it mean?
process	stages or causal sequence	How does it happen or work?
definition	class, distinguishing features, boundaries	What exactly does this term mean here?
exemplification	claim -> selected evidence -> interpretation	How does this case support the point?

分类可以混合。真正不能缺少的是 controlling purpose 与可辨认的 order，这正是 Paragraph Coherence 的实际展开。

7. Narrative Paragraph / 用时间推进事件

Narration 让读者沿时间感知变化。课堂地震例子通过 suddenly -> then -> meanwhile -> finally 推进，而动作与 sensory detail 让场景可感。

可用的顺序标志包括 at first, then, meanwhile, as soon as, afterward, eventually。但 transition words 只是路标；真正的 chronology 必须来自事件本身的排列。

课堂两人在餐桌边无意识敲勺、画餐巾的例子说明：precise verbs 和 gestures 可以暗示 tension，不必直接宣告 “they felt awkward.”

In narrative prose, precise actions often carry more meaning than stacked adjectives.

8. Descriptive Paragraph / 用空间组织注意力

Description 不是把看到的一切列成清单。它通常先给 overall impression，再按一个稳定方向移动：bottom to top、outside to inside、foreground to background，或围绕一个 focal point 展开。

课堂楼梯例子从楼梯底端向上移动，经过狭窄、昏暗、顶端的女人，最后揭示那是 mannequin。空间顺序既让画面清楚，也控制 suspense。

常用位置关系：next to, between, behind, across from, along, at the top, in the lower-left corner。

Avoid purple prose

感官细节应服务 purpose，而不是堆叠 adjective。课堂“咬苹果”反例把普通动作写得过度华丽，反而遮住意义。

Clear language makes room for complex thought.

高深应体现在思想与关系，不是读者破解语言的难度。

长短句可以有节奏地交错；口头 presentation 和正式 writing 也应使用不同 register，避免演讲像书面论文、论文却像随口聊天。

9. Data Commentary / 不要把图上的数字抄一遍

图表描述是一种选择性解释。课堂先辨认 title、caption、legend、axes、labels、scale、interval、data points 与 trend line，然后把写作分成四步：

identify the figure and source
-> give an overview of the dominant pattern
-> select significant comparisons, changes, peaks, or exceptions
-> explain causes, meaning, limitations, or implications

Choose patterns by graph type

• Line graph：rise/fall、turning points、peaks/troughs、periods of stability；
• Bar graph：largest/smallest categories、important gaps、group comparisons；
• Pie chart：how parts make up a whole、majority/minority、contrasts in share；
• Map or before/after diagram：what remained, what changed, where, and possible purpose or consequence；
• Process diagram：major stages first, then explain inputs, transformations, and outputs。

Useful but precise trend language

• increase: rise, increase, climb, surge, soar;
• decrease: fall, decline, dip, plunge, plummet;
• variation: fluctuate;
• stability: remain stable, level off, remain steady;
• degree: slightly, gradually, steadily, sharply, dramatically;
• extrema: reach a peak, reach a low, bottom out。

强度必须匹配数据；小幅变化不能写成 soar 或 plummet。还要区分 observation 与 explanation：图本身可以显示下降，但“下降由利率导致”需要外部证据或明确标为合理推断。

Analysis is not evaluation

课堂英国 GDP 例子先选择稳定区间与两个异常转折，再解释 recession、interest rates 和 financial crisis。这里应区分：

• description/analysis：what the graph shows and which pattern is significant；
• evaluation/interpretation：why the pattern occurred, what it implies, and how it bears on the paper’s claim。

如果 causal explanation 来自研究，必须 citation；如果只是自己的推测，应使用与证据强度匹配的 hedging，如 may reflect, could be associated with, suggests，而不是把 correlation 写成 causation。

10. Process and Object Description / 先看整体，再走步骤

Process paragraph 按阶段或因果链说明 how something happens。实验 procedure 常用客观、精确的 verbs 和清楚的 sequence；是否使用 present tense、past tense、active voice 或 passive voice，应服从 discipline 与 assignment convention。

复杂流程不应一上来淹没在细节中：

1. name the process and its purpose；
2. state the major stages；
3. move through each stage in order；
4. show the output or resulting state。

描述 object diagram 时则选择 spatial/functional order，例如外到内、核心部件到附属部件，或沿能量/信息流移动。

11. Definition Paragraph / 和读者使用同一本字典

课堂提供了一个实用起点：

term + class + distinguishing features

例如，定义 Underground Railroad 时，先说明它是一种 secret network，再说明它帮助 enslaved people escape；随后可根据文章需要补充 who, what, when, where, how, why。

定义的深度由 rhetorical situation 决定：

• familiar background term：一句 operational definition 可能足够；
• ambiguous evaluative term，如 “charming” 或 “effective”：必须说明本文采用的 criterion；
• paper’s central concept：需要 boundaries、process、examples、history 与近似概念的区别。

Definition aligns the writer’s and reader’s working meanings before the argument depends on them.

12. Exemplification and Evidence / 例子不是终点

不同学科可使用不同 evidence：quantitative data、qualitative interviews、historical facts、textual passages、observations、case studies 或 prior analyses。选择 evidence 时要问的不是“我能不能放进去”，而是它是否与 claim 相关、可靠、具有足够代表性。

课堂最后回到整门课最重要的结构：Claim Evidence Warrant。

claim: what should the reader accept?
evidence: what observation or source supports it?
warrant: why does this evidence support this claim?
implication: what follows if the reasoning is accepted?

很多初稿在 evidence 后就结束，于是教授会写 elaborate 或 implication?。这通常不是让你再堆一个 quotation，而是在追问：

• What does this evidence show?
• Why is this pattern relevant to the claim?
• What assumption connects them?
• Are there alternative explanations?
• What changes in our understanding because of this analysis?

Evidence becomes part of your argument only when you explain what it means and why it matters.

13. Class Examples / 课堂例子在证明什么

Example	Writing lesson
APA / MLA / Chicago samples	citation systems expose different locating information
Zotero demonstration	automation saves formatting work but still requires metadata checks
earthquake narrative	time signals make event order visible
spoon tapping and napkin drawing	actions and gestures can imply mood
narrow staircase and mannequin	spatial order can create both clarity and atmosphere
over-described apple	decorative wording can overpower purpose
UK GDP line graph	select trends and turning points, then interpret them
population bars and pie charts	category and proportion determine the comparison
campfire / power plant process	explain stages in a stable sequence
town map in 1700 and the present	organize change by unchanged/changed features and location
Underground Railroad definition	begin with class and distinguishing features, then elaborate
quantitative and qualitative research	evidence forms differ, but both require interpretation

14. Key Phrases / 一句话对应关系

• Citation style -> a standardized system for connecting source use to retrievable source details.
• Citation scope -> the exact stretch of prose a citation tells the reader came from a source.
• Hanging indent -> a reference-entry layout whose first line begins at the margin and later lines are indented.
• Organizing principle -> the time, space, comparison, causal, or logical order that holds a paragraph together.
• Narrative paragraph -> a paragraph that develops an event through time.
• Descriptive paragraph -> a paragraph that guides attention through space or selected features.
• Data commentary -> selective description of a figure followed by interpretation of significant patterns.
• Process paragraph -> a paragraph explaining stages, operations, or transformations in order.
• Definition paragraph -> a paragraph that establishes a term’s class, distinguishing features, and needed boundaries.
• Exemplification -> using selected cases or evidence to make a general point concrete and supportable.
• Warrant -> the reasoning that explains why the evidence supports the claim.
• Implication -> what follows from the analysis and why the reader should care.
• Purple prose -> language whose decorative intensity distracts from clarity or purpose.
• Register -> the level of formality and language choices appropriate to a situation.

15. Retrieval Questions / 回忆问题

1. APA、MLA 与 Chicago 分别优先把哪些定位信息交给读者？
2. 为什么不能仅凭学科名称决定 citation style？
3. citation manager 自动化了什么，又不能替你判断什么？
4. 为什么“每三句放两个括号”不是可靠的 citation-scope 规则？
5. narrative 与 descriptive paragraph 的组织线分别是什么？
6. 为什么 precise verb 往往比 adjective 堆叠更有效？
7. 描述图表时，overview、selected evidence 与 interpretation 分别做什么？
8. line graph、bar graph 和 pie chart 的比较重点有何不同？
9. 什么时候图表中的因果解释需要额外 citation？
10. process paragraph 为什么应先说明 major stages？
11. term + class + features 如何帮助写 definition？
12. 为什么 central concept 要比普通背景词定义得更完整？
13. quantitative 与 qualitative evidence 有何不同？
14. evidence 后缺少 warrant 时，读者还不知道什么？
15. elaborate 与 implication? 通常在要求作者补哪一步？

16. Homework and Next Step / 作业与下节课接口

本节作业：找一张与自己学科相关且感兴趣的数据图，写一个同时包含 description and analysis 的 paragraph。可按下面清单自查：

• identify the graph, subject, range, units, and source；
• give one overall pattern；
• select two or three meaningful comparisons or turning points；
• use verbs and degree words proportional to the data；
• distinguish observation from causal explanation；
• cite outside explanations；
• end with meaning, relevance, limitation, or implication。

下节课可能会点评已提交的前两次作业。

Connected Notes / 连接

• 课程导航：大学写作-课程主页
• 前置课程：大学写作第 2 课 - 段落连贯、引用整合与改述
• 引用系统：Academic Citation / Citation Styles / Acceptable Paraphrase / Source Integration
• 段落组织：Paragraph Coherence / Paragraph Development / Signposting
• 论证完成度：Claim Evidence Warrant / Reader-Centered Writing / Academic Writing
• 总图：UBC Knowledge Graph / UBC Concept Index